In 1950, Alan Turing became brilliant with the design of the Turing test to measure machine intelligence. Alan Turing was the first person to directly note the potential of artificial intelligence. (Leach, 2022) In the same year, Turing wrote an article entitled. He published "Computing machinery and intelligence", which was a turning point in the history of artificial intelligence. This article was about the idea of the possibility of programming electronic computers to behave intelligently. (Buchanan, 2005)
Figure 1-Alan Turing-www.wikipedia.org
In the same year, the great mathematician Claude Shannon also analyzed the chess game and its rules in detail to turn these rules into a computer program. Between 1952 and 1962 Arthur Samuel Ham at IBM first programmed the game of checkers in computer form. (Schaeffer, 1997) If there is one event that stands out during the development of artificial intelligence, it is the Dartmouth College Summer Workshop held in New Hampshire in 1956. IBM's John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester, Arthur Samuel, and Claude Shannon, Carnegie Tech's Alan Newell and Herbert Simon, Princeton University's Trenchard Moore, and MIT's Ray Salmonoff and Alvor Selfridge—10 people in all—organized the event. They did (Russell, 2010) finally, the term "artificial intelligence" was expressed by John McCarthy for the first time and there was a strong scientific gap compared to the past of this science.
This workshop made artificial intelligence come into the spotlight and enough funds were allocated for research in this field. (Leach, 2022) In 1959, John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded an artificial intelligence laboratory at MIT University; (Chaillou, 2019) that Joseph Weisenbaum later wrote the ELIZA programming language in the same laboratory between 1964 and 1966. A language that was an interactive conversational program in English. (Haenlein, 2019) This program is considered an achievement of the advancements in the field of artificial intelligence after the Dartmouth workshop. Another achievement of this workshop occurred in 1959 by Herbert Simon, Cliff Shaw, and Alan Newell; That is the General Problem Solving program, a program that solved all the world's problems. Of course, at that time he was only able to solve some simple problems such as the Tower of Hanoi. Herbert and his colleagues used the goal-based problem-solving method to find a solution to limit and control artificial intelligence in the search, only to reach the goal. This golden age, from around 1956 to 1970, is called the summer of artificial intelligence. (Haenlein, 2019) John McCarthy, who is a prominent person in the field of artificial intelligence, in 1958 in the same laboratory he founded. Invented the LISP programming language. Historically, this language is still one of the most important artificial intelligence programming languages (second place). This language started many ideas in the world of artificial intelligence; Ideas such as tree data structure, automatic management, automatic typing, conditionals, and... The winter of artificial intelligence has arrived. Then the market was captured by IBM and APPLE computers. The first winter of artificial intelligence 10 years ago, due to the machine's inability to translate language to language, suffered a severe recession in both funding and research. Between 1970 and around 1990, the world of artificial intelligence stagnated. (Leach, 2022) Of course, in the middle of these 20 years of winter, that is, in the mid-80s, the use of artificial neural network algorithms grew a lot and brought machine learning into the world of artificial intelligence. (Kamui, 2020)
Figure 2-The 1956 Dartmouth Workshop-www.cantorsparadise.com
Before re-entering the golden age of artificial intelligence, it is better to talk about the developments in the world of architecture with the influence of the world of computer science during this period, i.e. from around 1957 - the beginning of the summer of artificial intelligence - to 1990 - the end of the second winter of artificial intelligence. One of the most fundamental developments in architectural design took place in 1957 with the advent of CAD or Computer Aided Drawing software. This software was launched under the brand name Pronto by Patrick Henarty - the father of CAD. Of course, this point should also be kept in mind that the first theory of modularization with computers was proposed by Walter Gropius in 1920 AD and the era after World War II. (Chaillou, 2019) Later in 1963, that is about 6 years later, Patrick Henratty, together with IBM and General Motors, invented the the the first computer graphic system for design, Computer-Aided Design. Exactly three years before CAD, in the year 60, Luigi Moretti, an Italian architect, divided the complex plan of a stadium - Stadium N - into 19 parts, by expressing the theory of architecture of parts. This idea became the basis for the formation of SketchPad software, which was designed by Evan Sutherland, a computer scientist, in his doctoral thesis.
Figure 3-Computer Aided Design-www.scan2cad.com
He used the idea of breaking down Morty's design in making this software. (Chaillou, 2019) This program became the background for the theory of human-computer interaction. A hypothesis that was proposed in design thinking in 82 AD by Nigel Cross, is discussed in the second speech. (Sears & Jacko, 2013) Of course, this computer program is also considered the ancestor of Computer Aided Design graphic software. The development of CAD software continued, and in 1966, McDonnell Douglas - the head of the US aerospace manufacturing department - produced a system called CADD to simplify the creation of complex geometries such as aircraft components within CAD. (Sears & Jacko, 2013) While expanding the use of computers in architecture, Christopher Alexander, an architect, and professor at Berkeley university, from 1964 to 1968, published two crucial articles titled "Note on the synthesis of the form" and "A pattern language" about the theory of why and how computers work in The body of the design process asked questions. (Chaillou, 2019) The ideas of Alexander, the architect in the 70s, were very influential in the design of programming languages and design methods. (Dijkstra, 1976)
Figure 4-Christopher Alexander-www.en.wikipedia.org
Another elite architect, Nicholas Negroponte, a professor at MIT University, with his strong presence in 1970, questioned the practical performance of the machine in the architectural design process. In 1985, he started the architectural machine group at the university. One of the tasks of this group was to investigate how the machine works in the development of the creative design process. By presenting two projects, Urban ll, and Urban V, this group achieved architectural production as a whole by machine. (Chaillou, 2019)
Figure 5-Nicholas Negroponte-www.wikipedia.org
What Negroponte proposed as a theory was the basis for the Generator project of Cambridge University architecture professor Cedric Price. In 1976, this intelligent project could respond and adapt to user needs. (Chaillou, 2019) This project is one of the first research efforts in architectural design with artificial intelligence. Little by little, at the end of the winter of artificial intelligence - 1990 AD - the parametric architecture style entered architecture with Patrick Schumacher's theory of parametricism; Zaha Hadid, one of the leading architects of this style, designed and built projects such as Vitra Fire Station in Germany. The parametric software of that time was Pro Engineer, which was launched in 1988. But the progress of the software did not stop and finally, Frank Gehry implemented the Bilbao museum with complex geometry with the Catia software. (Chaillou, 2019)
Figure 6-URBAN 5's overlay and the IBM 2250 model 1 cathode-ray-tube used for URBAN 5. Source openarchitectures.com -www.researchgate.net
Advancements in the field of computer science and artificial intelligence and their effects on the world of architectural design continued until 1997, IBM's Deep Blue machine was able to defeat the first man in the world, Garry Kasparov, in the game of chess. (Russell, 2010) This game was in 6 stages, the machine won 2 times, Kasparov won 1 game, and tied three times. (Leach, 2022)This victory of machines over humans is considered a turning point in artificial intelligence. (Buchanan, 2005)
Figure 7-World Chess champion Garry Kasparov (left) ponders a chess move during the sixth and final game of his match with IBM's Deep Blue computer on May 11, 1997. (Image credit: Roger Celestin/Newscom)-www.livescience.com
The golden age of artificial intelligence returned, and computer programming found a special place in other sciences, especially architecture. In 2000, David Ratten, an architect at McNeil Company, proposed the idea of the Grasshopper video program. This program is an interface between the world of architectural design and the legal world of programming. He launched the software in the market in 2007, which was well-received by architects. In the meantime, Flip Bernstein - a data and computer scientist - released Autodesk Revit parametric software to the market in 2000. (Chaillou, 2019)
Finally, in 2010, with the beginning of Deep Learning and Big Data in the science of artificial intelligence, this science officially entered the world of architectural design, and architects were very widely interested in using it, until 2014, Ian Goodfellow. He unveiled the adversarial neural network algorithm. (Chaillou, 2019) This algorithm is important because it is one step closer to the needs of architecture, i.e. design and image. Because this algorithm uses a large amount of image data, combines them, and produces images with better resolution. (Leach, 2022) These developments are still growing today, in 2022, and have created stunning results.
Figure 8-Ian Goodfellow known for Generative adversarial networks-www.dukakis.org
written by Fargol Amini